Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar. This is the month during which Muslims’ holy book Quran was revealed, Hassan the second Shiite Imam was born, Prophets’ son in law Ali was murdered, a conclusive battle at Badr was won and Muslims are expected to fast. One of the main rituals of Islam, fasting is obligatory for all Muslims except with the sick, pregnant women and some travelers. In all cases once recovered or stopped travelling the missing days should be fasted.

The practice is observed for the whole month and ends with the celebration ‘Fitr’. The daily period of fasting starts at dawn and ends at sunset with no food, drink or sex during the fasting hours. Such self-control is believed to benefit the individuals by elevating spiritual nature or energy and is symbolic of an inner purification of the character. The believers must have a good intention (niyyat) in their mind when fasting. This intention must be pure and the ritual should be performed for the love of God only, not for sake of earthly gains or even the reward of paradise. Special acts of piety, such as the recitation of the entire Quran (one-thirtieth each night of the month) and prayers specific to Ramadan are performed privately or communally at the mosques. Alms are given to the needy and charitable people will provide free meals at sunset when ending the fast meals are consumed.

Fasting is a common ritual practiced by most religions and was known in the pre-Islamic Arabia. There were several Gnostic sects, Christian and Manichean missionaries that practiced fasting and were present in Arabia at the time of Prophet Muhammad. The Muslim fasting was originally based on the Jewish tradition. In Quran crossing of the Red Sea by the Jewish exodus from Egypt is called furghan meaning salvation. Each year Jews commemorate this furghan at Passover. However the fasting season is at Yom Kippur another Jewish holy day when the entire day is dedicated to praying and other religious observances. Since food can not be consumed during the prayers fasting is observed till the rituals are over. This is called the Day of Atonement by the Jews and happens on the tenth of the Jewish month Tishri.

After prophet’s migration to Medina, influenced by the Jewish tradition, the Muslim fasting happened at Passover mixing this day and Yom Kippur together. The fasting was established for the day of ‘Ashura’, the tenth of Muharam. However after the decisive and unexpected victory at the battle of Badr the Prophet declared that the fast at Passover was no longer obligatory for Muslims. Instead they were required to fast during Ramadan to commemorate their own furghan of Badr. The fast of Ramadan was observed for the first time in 625, and became one of the essential practices of Islam and a must for all Muslims. It is not obligatory for youngsters until they reach puberty however most practicing Muslims encourage their children to practice occasional fasting long before they reach that age.

Women during menstruation and up to forty days following childbirth and pregnant women are also exempt from fasting. However the missed days should be made up before the next Ramadan. The very old and the insane are permanently exempt from fasting.

The fasting starts at the beginning of the month when the moon is in conjunction with the sun illuminating the side of the moon away from the earth. In this position, the moon is known as new moon with its dark side facing the earth. By definition a new moon is not visible till it has orbited long enough to form a crescent. A lunar month is approximately 29.5 days and on average is one day shorter than a solar month. Therefore, the month of Ramadan comes 10 – 12 days earlier each year. Any observatory and astronomy center can provide detailed and exact information as to the start of the month. However many Muslims will not start fasting till the moon crescent is sighted.

For Muslims like Jews the day begins at sunset and ends at the next sunset. In this system the night comes before the day. If the new moon is sighted before the sunset fasting starts the next day, but if the moon is sighted after the sunset, the first day of Ramadan does not start until the next sunset. The same system is used to determine the ending of the month. If the new moon for the following month, Shawwal is sighted before the sunset, fasting ends at the sunset on that day. If it is sighted after the sunset, the fasting continues till next day.

People fasting will rise early before dawn to have a pre-fast breakfast (Sahari) and a more elaborate meal at the end of the fasting day called Iftar (Iftari). The first one being early in the morning is a family affair and normally consists of a large breakfast with previously prepared cold meals like koko, kofteh with flat bread, Feta cheese, eggs, bread and jam served with tea. Dates are always served with all religious rituals and are assumed to bring barakat (blessing). These were Prophet Muhammad’s favorite food and are used at most Muslim ceremonies. There is no prescribed food as such and it varies according to the taste and economic status of the participants. Iftar however is like a feast and if possible is consumed with other close members of the family clan, friends and neighbors. Independent religious gathering places like a Takeyeh may serve Iftari food for people attending the event with communal praying, recitations of Quran and preaching by the religious figures and other respected authorities mainly males.

Segregation of sexes is still practiced by many Muslims therefore in some traditional families and in the Mosques males and females will be seated separately. Volunteers perform acts of charity by preparing food in the kitchens and serving the needy with food donated by the charitable people. Ramadan is regarded as a festive month for most Muslims. Streets and shops will be decorated with lights and flowers. People will congratulate each other by saying ‘Ramadan Mubarak’ (blessed Ramadan). People are not expected to give up their daily routine and work despite the apparent hardships caused by fasting. In fact they are expected to carry on as usual and withstanding the hardships is regarded an act of self-discipline rather than an ascetic or withdrawal from the every day life.

The last 10 days are especially important because Quran was revealed in this month at the ‘Night of Power’ (lailat al-qadr). Quran is the foundation of Islam and the unadulterated word of God; it is the Divine Word par excellence. Each single verse of it is called ayat " sign" or miracle because Prophet brought forth these verses as Divine signs when his adversaries asked him for a miracle attesting to his prophecy. According to the Quran, the night of power is better than a thousand months put together. Some people will retreat into prayers during these last ten days. These are called days of i-tikaf or retreat and it ends with Id-i Fitr.

In this night while at a cave in Mount Hira (610AD), the Archangel Jebraeel (Gabriel) appeared to the Prophet with the first five verses of the first chapter, Surat al-Alaq. Muhammad’s appointment as a prophet is called Mabath , meaning the one appointed.

The belief in angles plays an important role in both theology and popular faith. Gabriel occupies the most important position among the angles and represents the Holy Spirit or the Trustworthy Spirit. For this reason he was chosen to convey the Divine message to the Prophet. Muslims believe that this divine communication is the final stage in a long series of contacts conducted through the prophets. It started with Adam and ended with Muhammad the seal of the prophets. Through these contacts humans were warned that their happiness lay in worshipping Allah and to tell them of the terrible consequences of disobedience. God’s final revelation was sent down on the night of power through his last messenger Prophet Muhammad.

This night of revelation is also known as the night of might, destiny and the precious night. This occasion is observed privately or in congregation by performing prayers special to the occasion taraweeh, recitation of Quran and acts of charity. The night is usually celebrated on one of the last odd nights in Ramadan. Most Muslims have accepted 27^th of Ramadan as the correct date for this night. Shiites of Iran celebrate the night from 19^th to the 21^st of Ramadan. This is by design. It is said that prayers on this night are worth a thousand prayers on any other night; therefore to encourage people to pray on all these nights, the date remains unknown. Also the period coincides with Ali’s assassination and his subsequent death on the 21st^. . For this reason Ramadan in more a month of mourning for the Shiites than celebration. The three nights from stabbing to death are known as the nights of Revival (Shab i Aheya) and are mourned privately or communally. People stay up all night recite special prayers and at times will hold the Quran on their head while praying loudly or crying.

Martyrdom is very important in Iranian Shiite ideology and Ali’s assassination and his death are mourned intensely by the devout Shiites. According to their account, when the Prophet died, leadership of the community was to pass on to Ali, his cousin and son-in-law. Muhammad had raised Ali as a child. He was the first male convert and fought bravely for the faith. He was a constant aide and when the prophet withdrew from Mecca under the cover of night to escape assassination in 622, Ali remained behind as a decoy in Muhammad’s bed. However Ali did not succeed as the immediate successor and only became the leader of the community after the death of the three first leaders, Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman.

This was a time of major conflict between ruling clans, chaos caused by rapid expansion of Islam and a great power struggle between close relatives of the prophet including a brother-in-law of the prophet called Muawiya. He was the Governor of Syria and the winner at the end. A rebel group called Kharijites decided to assassin the three leaders, Ali, Muawiya and Amr ibn al-As. The last two survived.

Ali was assassinated while praying in the mosque of Kufa. The details of his martyrdom like those of his son Husayn have become legends remembered and mourned by Shiites ever since. The preachers in the mosques passionately and theatrically recap the events of the three nights and Ali’s foreknowledge of his death. On the 13^th of Ramadan Ali told his son Husayn that he would soon die and gave him the name of his assassin Ibn Muljam. Though asked by others including Ibn Muljam himself to kill the assassin beforehand to prevent the tragedy, Ali refused. He went on the roof the night before his stabbing to sing munajat (whispering prayers). He sang to the stars and moon that they should intensify their light because he was leaving the world. The mourners are told how desperately his daughter tried to stop him. Even his sash got caught in the door and his robe fell open. Animals on the way to the mosque blocked his way and he refused and told them he was ready for his call.

At the mosque Ali met and woke up his assassin and commented about the hidden sword and they both prayed. At the second prostration (sijda) Ibn Muljam struck Ali and he fell forward into the mihrab (the niche in a mosque wall which orients one toward Mecca). He took some dirt from the floor of the niche to put on his wound. The angel Gabriel filled the air with the cry that ‘Ali was slain and the muezzins (those who call the faithful to prayer) took up the cry from the rooftops. The assassin was captured and brought to the wounded leader. Ali ordered him detained but comforted him that if he survived, Ibn Muljam would be set free. As he died, Ali ordered that the assassin should be executed with one blow only, for he had struck only one blow, and his family should not be molested. He was executed on the twenty-seventh.

The rhetorical forms of the tragedy as the preachers tell it emphasizes the moral themes of generosity, fairness and appropriate punishment. At the same time they support and intensify the rhetoric. The stabbing during prostration is symbolically very significant. Muslim daily prayer namaz includes different positioning while praying. Ali was stabbed during the second prostration. One meaning given to the prostration is that the first refers to " from dust we are created"; the worshiper then sits back, resting upon his haunches, which represents life. The second prostration refers to " and to dust we return"; the concluding act, rising to one’s feet represents the final judgement. Ali is stabbed during the second prostration and putting the dust of the mihrab on his wound symbolizes his return to dust and acceptance of his fate and God’s will. The preachers during this part of the story recite the verse from the Quran about man being from dust. At the end how Ali’s children mourned his death is passionately described and all participants are encouraged to cry loudly and express extreme sorrow.

The end of Ramadan is celebrated on the first day of the month of Shawwal with a great feast named Id-i Fitr. The feat of breaking the fast calls for a solemn prayer, Salat al-Id.

Most people will attend their local mosques for communal prayers. The last feast or Iftari is more elaborate and is quite often joined by family friends and neighbors. On this day the statutory alms marking the end of the fast (Zakat al-fitr) are given. The more prosperous families give to the poor a prescribed quantity of the customary food of the area as an act of piety.

In the past the occasion was celebrated with grandeur with the local rulers participating and people joyfully attending the occasion. Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveler in the 14^th century describes Id-i Fitr in Tunis as follows; the Sultan fulfilled his customary duty of "leading a magnificent procession" of officials, courtiers, and soldiers. He proceeded from the citadel to a special outdoor praying ground (Musalla) that accommodated the crowds gathered for the prayers making the Breaking of the Fast". Even in the 19^th century Iran the Monarchs attended some prayers in the major mosques. Throughout the 20^th century the occasion became a community oriented one with less direct participation from the monarchy. The splendor of this feast is revived again with the supreme leader and high-ranking religious authorities participating zealously in the celebrations.

Practicing Muslims outside Iran observe the fasting and all the major events of the month. The mourning for Ali is normally done communally at the local mosques or other gathering places if there are no mosques. Id-i Fitr is usually spent in the company of other practicing Muslims with feasts, elaborate meals and prayers. Older children are encouraged to practice fasting, however this is not always possible with the busy school schedule. Sighting of the moon is barely observed and accurate information is obtained from observatories and local Muslim or Iranian media will announce the sunrise and sunset times according to the locality. In the absence of religious preachers the respected and learned members of the community perform the prayers. Women’s participation in organizing and administering such events has increased tremendously. Female preachers are appearing in greater numbers and youth are encouraged to participate at all community gatherings.

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