Prophet Muhammad was born around 570 in Mecca. There is no mention of the date of his birth in Quran or historical records but tradition ascribes the date to be on 12^th of Rabi al-awwal, the third lunar month. Most Muslims have accepted this to be the correct date. However some believe that his death happened on the same day and therefore this day is also the anniversary of his death in certain areas.

Celebrations of the birthday are mentioned first in Fatimid times in the 10^th century. Rulers of Egypt, they regarded Fatima, prophet’s daughter to be their ancestor. Prophet’s birthday was celebrated with grandeur to add to the religious and political prestige of the dynasty. Historical records going back to 1207 in Arbella (modern Irbil in Northern Iraq) shows that illumination and the recitation of special eulogies was already practiced. Soon the celebrations spread all over the area and hymns, prose and poetry to be recited for the occasion was composed in all languages. These are normally called Moulud (birthday) and amongst the most famous is Suleyman Chelebi’s Moulud Sharif in Turkish composed around 1400. The day is a public holiday and with the more traditional Muslims the entire month is devoted to recitations of religious texts and sermons.

The rise of Prophet Muhammad and the spread of Islam in seventh century are remarkable events. At the time of his birth, Mecca was a small city of around 3000 people controlled by the main tribe of the region Quraysh. A powerful tribe from Hijaz they worshipped a number of gods and goddesses. The area historically was on the trade routs and the whole of Southern Arabia relied on the frankincense trade that was used heavily in funerary rites of cremation. However by this time majority of the tribes had already converted to mainly Christianity and then Judaism. They both favored burial rather than cremation and demand for frankincense had declined radically. Persia, Byzantine and Romans before them dominated the area for centuries. Decades of wars between Persia and the Byzantine and the Ethiopian onslaught in 525 also contributed to the fall in trade. By the 7^th century Mecca was in decline.

The name Mecca is South Arabian in origin (miqrab, temple). Ptolemy the ancient Greek scholar calls it Macoraba. It lies in Hijaz, in a barren valley between two mountains. In the center of the city is located the holy Kabah next to the spring Zamzam. This sanctuary for centuries attracted pilgrims and was central to prosperity of Mecca. Prophet belonged to a minor clan called bani Hashim. His father a petty merchant died when his son was two months old. He grew up with his grand father and after his death lived with his uncle. As a young man he entered the service of the widow Khadija. She had inherited her modest wealth from her two deceased husbands and was independently carrying on business with the neighboring cities. Muhammad proved to be honest and capable. Khadija, a few years older was very taken by the young assistant who was called Amin (trustworthy) by this time. She asked for his hand in marriage and a few years later became his first convert. Four daughters and two sons were born all; died except two daughters, Ruqayyah and Fatima.

Prophet met people from all religions while travelling and in Mecca associated with Christians. A later close friend and a loyal convert, Salman the Persian also had a good knowledge of the Zoroastrian and Manichean religions. His early spiritual interests were oriented toward asceticism and salvation of the soul at the same time his belief in Allah, a local deity representing the creator and the god of the world grew stronger. Allah had become popular enough for people to be named after him, including prophet’s father, Abduallah. At the age forty while meditating and praying at Mt. Hira, close to Mecca he received the divine message. Allah was the only God and the source of all authority and being. Muhammad was appointed as the next and the last Prophet and it was his duty to convert all into submitting to Allah’s will. The new faith was called Islam meaning submission. Quran’s first verse was revealed to him through the angle Gabriel. Khadija at once believed in his divine mission converted and became the first Muslim. His daughters and his cousin Ali were next.

At the beginning his message did not create any sensation amongst the tribesmen. However as his popularity grew and he started directly attacking the traditional cults and deities people turned against him. His early supporters were friends, associates and slaves. It was the latter who became the first victims persecuted by the opposing forces. In the fifth year of his prophetic mission, he was forced to send away eighty-two of his early converts including Ruqayyah and her husband. They went to Abbyssinia, this was the nearest political representative of Christianity and the Muslims were given asylum by the Christian ruler.

Around 620 the new community was going through changes. Prophet’s account of a supernatural, nocturnal journey, in Gabriel’s company, to Jerusalem and then into Heaven created skepticism even amongst the new Muslims. This journey is called Mi’raj (ascension) and has an important place in Islamic mythology, particularly Shiite ideology. By 622 he himself was forced to live Mecca and migrated with a few supporters to the city of Yathrib later known as Medina, meaning city (Medinat Rasul-Allah, the city of the Apostle of God). The migration is called Hijrat and is the beginning of the Muslim lunar calendar. Prophet had gained the support of some local tribes beforehand and even managed to convert people before moving into the city. He also arrived as a peacemaker to settle the unending feud between local tribes including the pagans and the Jews who dominated the city. From then on Muslims managed to consolidate, defeat their enemies, and unite the whole of Arabia under the banner of Islam.

His early days in Medina are the formative period when laws were laid down. Many rituals and rites were created, modified and eventually set forever. His religious interests in Medina were also affected by his relationship to the Jews. Following the Jewish fast on the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), the tenth of Muharram was chosen as a fasting day for Muslims. It was changed later and eventually the entire month of Ramadan was set to be the fasting month. Whereas in Mecca his believers prayed only twice a day, a third prayer was introduced at midday. Latter influenced by the Persians the prayers were increased to five times per day. All his prescriptions were confirmed by divine messages.

Contrary to both Christians and Jews human voice was chosen to call for prayers. As the day of public prayer he settled on Friday corresponding to the Jewish Sabbath, while at the same time contrary to the Jewish tradition, allowed the rest of the day to be free for the worldly affairs.

Abraham already existing as one of the numerous prophets of the old times, became the very founder of the true faith. It was revealed to the prophet that Abraham had founded the sanctuary in Mecca for his son Ishmael and established the pilgrimage festival. The ceremonies were purified from the pagan abuses such as visiting the house naked and one of the most important rites of obligation in Islam, i.e. Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca was envisioned. Pagans were required to convert while Christians and Jews were left on their own as long as they paid a toll tax. The relationship with Jews soon turned sour. Not all of them would convert, and along with the Christians they did not approve of discrepancies existing between Quranic versions of the biblical stories and those in the old and the New Testament, by year 628 the Jewish colonies in Arabia were crushed.

By 627, raiding expeditions against opposing tribes became a norm. Resistance grew and the battles shifted from simply raiding the caravans into extreme bloodshed. The notion of Jihad, or holy war against enemies of the fate was formulated around this time and eventually by 632 became another important principle of Islam. In 630 prophet arrived in Mecca as a victor. First, a truce was made between Abusufyan the leader of Mecca on behalf of all the male inhabitants. Next another truce was made with Hind, Abusufyan’s wife on behalf of women of Mecca. After the peace treaty once Prophet reached Kabah, he rode around the sanctuary seven times, and each time touched the black stone, a meteorite placed in the house. He ordered the idols and other images destroyed.

This was the first pilgrimage to Mecca made by the Muslims, though not every one became a convert and many still received protection under the peace treaty. In another pilgrim, prophet’s son in law Ali stood on the hill Mina and read a new decree. In the beginning of the ninth chapter of the Quran, Prophet finally broke with the idol-worshipers. In the future no unbeliever was to perform the pilgrimage within the holy area. By 632, ten years after Hijrat Prophet’s task was completed, Arabia was in Muslim hands.

In this year he made a final visit to Mecca with all his wives and a great company of believers. Every single action he took during this last visit has been noted and handed down with exactitude. This has become the model of correct performance of the sacred rites. On the second or the third day the Prophet established a lunar calendar of twelve months and enjoined the basic duties of Islam upon the believers. He was around sixty years old by then. His wife Khadija had died years earlier. It was only after her death that he married a number of women including his favorite, the very young Aisha, the daughter of his close friend Abu Bakr. Still a child at the time, Aisha has become a point of departure for Sunni and Shiite. While the first group regards her as the mother of all Muslims, the Shiites accuse her of dividing the community, plotting against Ali and his wife Fatima.

Prophet’s treatment of his wives, internal quarrels and his preference for his young bride Aisha and the role she played in power struggles after his death in 632 have become one of the basis of how women should be treated by Muslims and a source of great controversy till present. Other close friends and allies of the Prophet, like Abu Bakr, Umar and Osman, the first three caliphs and Ali, his son in law are other sources of conflict and dispute between Sunni and Shiite Muslims.

In his days in Medina and Mecca Prophet formulated his basic doctrines of Islam. Allah is the only Lord of Universe, and this is called Tawhid (unity of God), the first pillar of Islam. Allah has existed from eternity and is absolute in his decrees of good and evil. His decrees are ordained because he wishes so and he can alter them as he pleases. Such altered commands are evident in Quran when new creeds are revealed and the old ones are abandoned or modified (nasekh & mansoukh). Muslims should obey all decrees and submit to Allah’s will unconditionally. God’s orders would be revealed through Quran. A heavenly tablet existing before existence itself. The idea of heavenly tablets was a familiar concept in the ancient Mesopotamia and Judaism in its traditional literature has regarded Torah as pre-existent. Quran is a transcript of the tablet (loh i mahfouz) preserved in Heaven.

The second basic dogma or pillar is Muhammad himself. He is the Apostle of God and the last in a chain of prophets going back to the first human, Adam and then to Abraham and ending with Muhammad the seal of the prophets. The Jewish and Christians faiths are accepted as true faiths and their prophets as God’s representative. Jesus the last messenger before Muhammad had predicted coming of the new prophet. However the Jews and Christians falsified pure doctrines of Abraham and Jesus. Islam’s task was to restore the true faith through Prophet Muhammad. This was achieved by revealing God’s true words and commands through holy Quran. This is called Nabouvat, which means accepting Muhammad to be God’s Apostle.

The third pillar concerns life after death and resurrection at the time of the final judgement. On this day dead will rise, their deeds will be judged and if they are found guilty they will end in Jahannam (Hell) to be tortured forever. The good is placed in Paradise with streams, greenery, delicious food, wine and beautiful virgins. This pillar is called Maad and is very important in Quran. Non believers are constantly threatened by punishments they might receive once they end up in Hell. The believers on the other hand are advised not to be concerned with the worldly affairs because of their rewards in the afterlife.

Shiites believe in two more pillars that are not accepted by the Sunni Muslims, Adl and Imamat. The first means, God is just and the second entail believing in imams. These are descendents of Prophet Muhammad from Fatima and the true leaders of the Islamic community. The first was a major issue for the Iranians converting from Zoroastrianism into Islam. Their ancient religion had separated the origins of good and evil. Ahura Mazda was only capable of producing goodness while Ahriman was responsible for all evil.

It was very hard to understand how Allah could have created Satan, the origin of all evil. The question was, are humans responsible for their actions and should they be punished accordingly despite the fact that God created Satan? It is Satan that deceives and manipulates human soul so why does Allah let him to do so, and why should humans be punished. This major doctrinal issue has never been resolved and at the end it was decided that God knows best. One day all will be revealed to humans and meanwhile it is accepted that god can only be just and humans will be punished for their miss-conduct.

The notion of Imamat is also affected by Iranian traditions. The death of the prophet divided the Muslim community forever. The right to occupy his place became a question of great religious weight and has resulted in the formation of the two major sects, Sunni and Shiite. The latter believe that Ali should have been the rightful hire after Prophet’s death. However he only managed to become the fourth Caliph and eventually was murdered in 661. His eldest son Hassan was no match for the powerful Muawiya from the house of Umayyad. He resigned his claim and was paid off a handsome settlement and died under suspicious circumstances. Shiites believe he was poisoned and therefore he is regarded as a martyr. Ali’s second son Husayn fought Muawiya and lost.

The whole family was massacred in the battle of Karbala. This battle is at the center of the most important Shiite religious gathering at the month of Muharram. At this occasion Husayn’s death is mourned with plays, self-beating, processions and prayers. It can last for one to three days depending on the locality. Ali’s assassination and Husayn’s martyrdom are central to the Shiite doctrine. As a result most religious occasions are celebrations of death and martyrdom. This is contrary to joyful celebrations Zoroastrians held at all times. Shiites attracted many supporters within the ranks of Mawali, the non-Arab newly converted Muslims. They had accepted the faith believing all would be equal in the new faith and expected exemption from toll tax that was conferred on other religions. They fought alongside the Arabs and ran the administration and bureaucracy. However they were not treated the same as the Arab Muslims and were subjected to humiliation abuse and hardship. They were taxed and viewed with hostility and the leading Arab tribes never fully admitted their claims.

Ali’s family and survivors of his massacred children looked for support from such groups. Persians always revolting against the conquering Arabs saw a golden opportunity and launched revolt against the ruling Arab families and sided with the Prophet’s descendents instead. What began as a political and social revolt soon acquired a religious character. A man named Mukhtar headed a revolt in the name of Muhammad al-Hanafiya, the son of Ali by a wife other than Fatima. He lost in the battle but managed to convince his followers that this Muhammad was not dead but had retired into concealment in the mountains around Mecca. He will make a second appearance to restore peace and justice to the world. Such was the birth of the Mahdi legend with the Shiites believing in his return as a Messiah and a savior.

The Shiite doctrines were consolidated over a long period of time and were influenced by Zoroastrians traditions still deeply rooted and present in the Iranian territories. In it’s Iranian context the idea of a savior coming and saving the human kind at the end of the time is Zoroastrian and resembles the appearance of the last savior and time lord Saoshyant. Even the name Imam Zaman or time lord given by the new Shiite to this Messiah embodies the same concept long held by the Zoroastrians. Gradually more specific doctrines began to appear that were different from the ones held by the traditional orthodox Muslims known as Sunni. Sunnat means tradition and Shia means follower, soon the two became quite distinct in a number of ways.

Shiites rejected the principle of the consensus of the community with respect to the leadership. Instead they proposed that there was an infallible imam in every age to whom alone God entrusted the guidance of his servants. Such imams where to be find amongst the Prophet’s closest relatives. This propaganda met with great success. Soon the house of Umayyad the ruling Caliphs was overthrown and a new leader descended from Abbas a relative of Ali took over. The victorious Abbasids however once in power killed all their Iranian associates and their leaders. Attacked the tomb of Husayn and eliminated all those who stood in the direct line of descent from Ali. Bitterly disillusioned by the victor’s actions, Shiites concentrated on doctrinal issues and their evolution continued. They taught that the faithful must believe in all the imams and specially in the imam of their own time. Twelve imams all believed to have descended from Fatima became the Holy twelve, with Ali and Fatima they formed the fourteen innocents.

The notion of twelve imams itself resembles the twelve Eyzads or deities venerated by the Zoroastrians. These imams are divinely appointed rulers and guardians of the faithful who have succeeded to the prerogatives of the prophet himself. They posses superhuman qualities received from Muhammad. Such qualities are inherited through a divine light, which is passed on from one generation to the next starting from Adam and culminating in Muhammad and his descendents. Though such ideas were originally limited to the holy twelve but gradually they were applied to the current imams as well. Another major difference between the two sects involved the notion of the 14 innocents, and believing that none is capable of committing any sin. Sinlessness and infallibility are in the imams. They also possess secret knowledge and know the future. They are the sole and ultimate authority in the interpretation of the Quran. They are the source of all truth, and the only beings with the right to men’s obedience. It was also mentioned that Husayn had actually married the daughter of the last Sassanian king (Shahrbanu). By the virtue of their lineage they carried a special divine grace, similar to the Zoroastrian Royal Khvarenah (glory). Consequently all doctrines must bear imam’s authority. An authoritarian church was formed and found solid grounds for expression in the new religion.

With the Iranian Shiites they believe that the last imam (the 12^th one) disappeared in the year 880. He is expected to come back once again as Mahdi (guided one) to restore justice. The movement is very messianic in nature and has been popular all over the Islamic world. There are many different Shiite sects and in other places particularly North Africa they are more influenced by the ancient Jewish and Christian messianic movements of the time rather than Zoroastrianism.

The religious obligations of Muslims are numerous and religious law controls virtually every aspect of believer’s life including what they should eat, how to dress and whom to associate with. Ablutions are the primary canonical duties of Muslims and a very important part of prayer rituals. They are as important as moral values and good deeds and must be observed at all times. For example if water can not be obtained to wash hands and face before prayers, sand may be used as an abrasive. But without ablutions prayers are not valid. Prayers are extremely important and obligatory. They are fixed and consist of certain prayers and Quranic verses that are to be repeated in equally fixed and regularly alternating bodily postures. All prayers are performed facing the direction of Mecca. A small clay tablet mainly from Karbala is placed on a small rectangular piece of prayer cloth called ‘janamaz’. Prayer beads from holy cities like Karbala or Mecca are also placed on the small cloth and may be used during prayers. 

The totality of the prayers and the postures is called a rakat, which must be repeated at least twice for each prayer. Different sects might practice minor variations of the same routine. The Shiite Iranians pray three time a day instead of five times. The first one is before dawn and they have combined the noon and afternoon prayers as one and the evening and the late night prayers as another. All Muslims are required to stop work at prayer times and perform the ritual. This in many places is not compatible with modern life. However it is possible to postpone prayers till later and most people do if this is their only option.

Friday prayers are particularly important. Being a holiday in all Muslim countries, noon prayers are held in public, mainly mosques. They start with a pulpit address by the leader of prayer called khutbah, followed by prayers and a sermon. The prayers are about professing one’s faith, admitting total subjugation to God’s will and an intercession for Muhammad and his house. The Shiites include Ali in their prayers as well while Sunni Muslims only mention Prophet Muhammad.

The next chief religious duty is fasting and will be discussed in more detail. Fasting includes the renunciation of food and drink and other enjoyments such as sexual intercourse from dawn to dusk. Paying alms to the poor is very essential and is called ‘zakout’. Shiites have another religious tax ‘khoms’ meaning fifth. This tax is paid directly to the religious authorities for the benefit of the community. Promoting the prescribed (amr e beh marouf) and prohibiting the forbidden (nah e az monker) are also very important prescriptions. For example any Muslim witnessing another fellow Muslim drinking alcohol has the duty to persuade him not to do so.

These two principles are used extensively throughout the centuries to publicly involve everyone to make sure all Islamic principles are followed and observed by all.

Pilgrimage to Mecca and Jihad or holy wars are amongst other principal duties of Muslims. In his earlier days Prophet had dedicated himself to the task of converting the Arabs to Islam. Peaceful efforts proved ineffective and after settling down in Medina it was difficult to persuade many including fellow converts from Mecca to attack the old city with all friends and relatives still back in the town. By the preaching of war as a sacred and obligatory duty Prophet managed to gradually prepare his followers to attack Mecca.

More verses were revealed and Quran made it quite clear that infidelity to Allah is very serious. In order to bring idolatry to an end even sacred truces can be broken and blood of the kinsmen can be shed if needed. The idea of Jihad and fighting the infidels has been used extensively throughout the Islamic history and has become a popular notion with extremists in the last few decades. Most Iranian Muslims still follow many of these practices and some notions such as daily prayers, alms to the poor, fasting and pilgrimage are very popular with most Muslims.

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